'the branch of psychology that explores the operation of mental processes related to perceiving, attending, thinking, language, and memory, mainly through inferences from behavior. The cognitive approach, which developed in the 1940s and 1950s, diverged sharply from contemporary behaviorism in (a) emphasizing unseen knowledge processes instead of directly observable behaviors and (b) arguing that the relationship between stimulus and response was complex and mediated rather than simple and direct. Its concentration on the higher mental processes also contrasted with the focus on instincts and other unconscious forces typical of psychoanalysis. More recently, cognitive psychology has been influenced by approaches to information processing and information theory developed in computer science and artificial intelligence. See also cognitive science.' - APA

'the branch of psychology that specializes in facilitating personal and interpersonal functioning across the lifespan. Counseling psychology focuses on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns—such as improving well-being, alleviating distress and maladjustment, and resolving crises—and addresses issues from individual, family, group, systems, and organizational perspectives. The counseling psychologist has received professional education and training in one or more counseling areas, such as educational, vocational, employee, aging, personal, marriage, or rehabilitation counseling. In contrast to a clinical psychologist (see clinical psychology), who usually emphasizes origins of maladaptations, a counseling psychologist emphasizes adaptation, adjustment, and more efficient use of the individual’s available resources.' - APA

'therapy in which both partners in a committed relationship are treated at the same time by the same therapist or therapists. Couples therapy is concerned with problems within and between the individuals that affect the relationship. For example, one partner may have undiagnosed depression that is affecting the relationship, or both partners may have trouble communicating effectively with one another. Individual sessions may be provided separately to each partner, particularly at the beginning of therapy; most of the course of therapy, however, is provided to both partners together. Couples therapy for married couples is known as marital therapy.' - APA

'the fluid within the central canal of the spinal cord, the four ventricles of the brain, and the subarachnoid space of the brain. It serves as a watery cushion to protect vital tissues of the central nervous system from damage by shock pressure, and it mediates between blood vessels and brain tissue in exchange of materials, including nutrients.' -APA

'the part of a neuron (nerve cell) that contains the nucleus and most organelles. Also called perikaryon; soma.' - APA

'either half (left or right) of the cerebrum. The hemispheres are separated by a deep longitudinal fissure, but they are connected by commissural, projection, and association fibers so that each side of the brain normally is linked to functions of tissues on either side of the body. See also hemispheric lateralization.' - APA

'the branch of psychology that specializes in the research, assessment, diagnosis, evaluation, prevention, and treatment of emotional and behavioral disorders. Clinical psychologists are doctorate-level professionals who have received training in research methods and techniques for the diagnosis and treatment of various psychological disorders. They work primarily in health and mental health clinics, in research, in academic settings, or in group and independent practices. They also serve as consultants to other professionals in the medical, legal, social-work, and community-relations fields. Clinical psychologists comprise approximately one third of the psychologists working in the United States and are governed by the code of practice of the American Psychological Association and by state licensing requirements.' - APA

'the largest part of the brain, forming most of the forebrain and lying in front of and above the cerebellum. It consists of two cerebral hemispheres bridged by the corpus callosum. Each hemisphere is divided into four main lobes: the frontal lobe, occipital lobe, parietal lobe, and temporal lobe. The outer layer of the cerebrum—the cerebral cortex—is intricately folded and composed of gray matter. Also called telencephalon. [Latin, literally: “brain”]' - APA

'a form of psychotherapy based on the concept that emotional and behavioral problems in an individual are, at least in part, the result of maladaptive or faulty ways of thinking and distorted attitudes toward oneself and others. The objective of the therapy is to identify these faulty cognitions and replace them with more adaptive ones, a process known as cognitive restructuring. The therapist takes the role of an active guide who attempts to make the client aware of these distorted thinking patterns and who helps the client correct and revise his or her perceptions and attitudes by citing evidence to the contrary or by eliciting it from the client. See also cognitive behavior therapy. Also called Beck therapy. [developed by Aaron T. Beck]' - APA

'the channel in the center of the spinal cord, which contains cerebrospinal fluid.' - APA

'the entire complex of neurons, axons, and supporting tissue that constitute the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is primarily involved in mental activities and in coordinating and integrating incoming sensory messages and outgoing motor messages. Compare peripheral nervous system.' - APA

'a portion of the hindbrain dorsal to the rest of the brainstem, to which it is connected by the cerebellar peduncles. The cerebellum modulates muscular contractions to produce smooth, accurately timed ballistic movements; it helps maintain equilibrium by predicting body positions ahead of actual body movements, and it is required for some kinds of motor conditioning. [Latin, literally: “little brain,” diminutive of cerebrum]' - APA

'the layer of gray matter that covers the outside of the cerebral hemispheres in the brain and is associated with higher cognitive functions, such as language, learning, perception, and planning. It consists mostly of neocortex, which has six main layers of cells; regions of cerebral cortex that do not have six layers are known as allocortex. Differences in the cytoarchitecture of the layers led to the recognition of distinct areas, called Brodmann’s areas, many of which are known to serve different functions.' - APA

'one of the two main groups of nuclei in the amygdala within the brain. It includes the central nucleus and receives mainly olfactory and pheromonal information; its output, via the stria terminalis, is to the hypothalamus and the basomedial forebrain. See also basolateral group.' - APA

'a form of psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers in the early 1940s. According to Rogers, an orderly process of client self-discovery and actualization occurs in response to the therapist’s consistent empathic understanding of, acceptance of, and respect for the client’s frame. The therapist sets the stage for personality growth by reflecting and clarifying the ideas of the client, who is able to see himself or herself more clearly and come into closer touch with his or her real self. As therapy progresses, the client resolves conflicts, reorganizes values and approaches to life, and learns how to interpret his or her thoughts and feelings, consequently changing behavior that he or she considers problematic. It was originally known as nondirective counseling or nondirective therapy, although this term is now used more broadly to denote any approach to psychotherapy in which the therapist establishes an encouraging atmosphere but avoids giving advice, offering interpretations, or engaging in other actions to actively direct the therapeutic process. Also called client-centered psychotherapy; person-centered therapy; Rogerian therapy.' - APA

'a large tract of nerve fibers running across the longitudinal fissure of the brain and connecting the cerebral hemispheres: It is the principal connection between the two sides of the brain. The largest of the interhemispheric commissures, it is known as the great commissure. ' - APA

'any of the eight spinal nerves in the neck area. Each has a dorsal root that is sensory in function and a ventral root that has motor function.' - APA

'an axon from any of various neurons that connect the same or equivalent structures in the left and right cerebral hemispheres.' - APA

'a branch of forensic psychology concerned with the application of counseling and clinical techniques to criminal and juvenile offenders in penal and correctional facilities (e.g., reformatories, penitentiaries). Correctional psychologists also participate professionally in court activities, probation departments, parole boards, prison administration, supervision of inmate behavior, and programs for the rehabilitation of offenders.' - APA

'therapy in which the partners in a relationship or members of a family are treated together in joint sessions by one or more therapists, instead of being treated separately. Also called conjoint counseling. ' - APA

'a form of psychotherapy that integrates theories of cognition and learning with treatment techniques derived from cognitive therapy and behavior therapy. CBT assumes that cognitive, emotional, and behavioral variables are functionally interrelated. Treatment is aimed at identifying and modifying the client’s maladaptive thought processes and problematic behaviors through cognitive restructuring and behavioral techniques to achieve change. Also called cognitive behavior modification; cognitive behavioral therapy' - APA

'a time-limited, collaborative psychotherapy that emphasizes schemas and integrates principles and techniques from psychodynamic psychotherapy and cognitive behavior therapy. [developed in the 1980s by British psychiatrist Anthony Ryle (1927–  )]' - APA